What does Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants require and does it protect your family?
An international environmental treaty, effective since 2004, that bans or restricts the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) - chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, accumulate in living organisms, and pose risks to human health. The treaty has listed several PFAS compounds including PFOS (2009), PFOA (2019), and PFHxS (2022), driving the global phase-out of these chemicals from consumer products including cookware coatings.
Renee · Founder & Lead Researcher, R3
We score every product the same way and never accept brand payment. We may earn a commission from some links, which never changes a score. How we stay independent.
Quick facts
Get the research before you buy
New picks and safety research, no spam, no sponsors.
If you have ever wondered why PFOA and PFOS are no longer intentionally used in nonstick cookware coatings, the Stockholm Convention is a major part of the answer. This international treaty - signed by 186 parties worldwide - targets the most persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals on the planet. Its decisions have directly shaped which chemicals manufacturers can and cannot use in products like air fryers and cookware.
Understanding the Stockholm Convention helps parents make sense of why certain chemicals disappeared from product labels, why others are still showing up as contaminants, and what the global regulatory trajectory looks like for the PFAS family of chemicals.
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a multilateral environmental treaty adopted on May 22, 2001, in Stockholm, Sweden. It entered into force on May 17, 2004, after the 50th country ratified it. As of 2025, the treaty has 186 parties - making it one of the most widely adopted environmental agreements in existence.
The treaty targets a specific category of chemicals called persistent organic pollutants, or POPs. To qualify as a POP under the Convention, a chemical must meet four criteria: persistence (it does not break down easily in the environment), bioaccumulation (it builds up in the fatty tissues of living organisms and concentrates up the food chain), potential for long-range environmental transport (it can travel far from where it was released), and adverse effects on human health or the environment.
The Convention is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and operates through three annexes that determine what happens to listed chemicals:
The initial "dirty dozen" chemicals listed when the treaty was adopted included well-known hazards like DDT, PCBs, and dioxins. Since then, the Conference of the Parties (COP) has added numerous chemicals through a rigorous scientific review process managed by the POPs Review Committee.
For families concerned about air fryers and cookware safety, the Stockholm Convention's PFAS listings are the most directly relevant decisions.
PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonic acid) was added to Annex B (restriction) at COP-4 in 2009. This was the first PFAS compound listed under the Convention. PFOS had been widely used in stain-resistant treatments, firefighting foams, and some industrial processes. The listing allowed specific acceptable purposes and exemptions but signaled the beginning of the global regulatory reckoning with PFAS chemistry.
PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) was added to Annex A (elimination) at COP-9 in 2019. This was a landmark decision. PFOA had been used as a processing aid in the manufacture of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) - the polymer behind Teflon and most traditional nonstick coatings. The Annex A listing means parties must eliminate production and use of PFOA, with time-limited exemptions for specific applications. For cookware, this listing confirmed what major manufacturers like DuPont and Chemours had already begun doing voluntarily: phasing out PFOA from nonstick coating production.
PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid) was added to Annex A at COP-10 in 2022 with no specific exemptions - the strictest possible listing. PFHxS had been used as a replacement for PFOS in some applications, making this listing significant for preventing the "regrettable substitution" pattern where banned chemicals are replaced with closely related compounds that carry similar risks.
Here is where things get nuanced for American families. The United States signed the Stockholm Convention on May 23, 2001 - one of the earliest signatories. But the U.S. has never ratified the treaty. Signing indicates intent; ratification creates legal obligation. Without ratification, the U.S. is not legally bound by the Convention's requirements.
The ratification has stalled in the U.S. Senate for over two decades, primarily due to concerns about the treaty's implications for domestic regulatory authority and the cost of compliance for certain industrial sectors. Several administrations have expressed support for ratification, but it has never reached a Senate floor vote.
This does not mean the Convention has no impact on American consumers. The global phase-out driven by the Stockholm Convention affects the entire supply chain. When 186 countries restrict a chemical, manufacturers reformulate globally rather than maintaining separate production lines for different markets. The practical result is that PFOA and PFOS have largely disappeared from new cookware production worldwide - including products sold in the U.S. - even though the U.S. is not technically bound by the treaty.
The U.S. has its own regulatory mechanisms targeting PFAS. The EPA has issued health advisories, proposed drinking water limits, and designated PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances under CERCLA (Superfund). Individual states have passed their own PFAS cookware bans. But the comprehensive, binding framework that the Stockholm Convention provides to its ratifying parties does not apply to the U.S. as a legal matter.
The Stockholm Convention's listings have created a clear before-and-after in cookware chemistry. Understanding the timeline helps parents evaluate products.
Modern air fryers from major brands should not contain intentionally added PFOA or PFOS in their nonstick coatings - the Stockholm Convention's listings, combined with EPA stewardship programs, drove the global reformulation. However, PTFE-based coatings may still contain trace PFAS as manufacturing byproducts, and replacement processing aids like GenX are not yet covered by the Convention. When evaluating air fryers, look for explicit PFOA-free and PFOS-free declarations backed by third-party testing, and consider ceramic-coated alternatives if minimizing all PFAS exposure is your priority.
The chemicals targeted by the Stockholm Convention - particularly PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS - are associated with a range of health effects documented in epidemiological studies. These include immune system suppression, thyroid disruption, elevated cholesterol, kidney and testicular cancer (for PFOA), and developmental effects in children exposed in utero. The treaty's scientific review process confirmed these chemicals persist in human blood for years and bioaccumulate through the food chain. While the Convention has driven significant reductions in new production, legacy contamination in water, soil, and existing products means exposure pathways remain.
The Stockholm Convention entered into force May 17, 2004, with 186 parties as of 2025. PFOS was listed in Annex B (restriction) in 2009. PFOA was listed in Annex A (elimination) in 2019. PFHxS was listed in Annex A (elimination) with no exemptions in 2022. The United States signed the treaty in 2001 but has not ratified it, meaning U.S. compliance is voluntary. However, the global supply chain effects of the Convention's listings have practically eliminated intentional PFOA and PFOS use in new cookware production worldwide.
Who is most at risk
Look for these
Watch out for
What this does NOT cover
Replacement PFAS chemicals like GenX (HFPO-DA) that are not yet listed under the Convention Trace contamination below the Convention's threshold levels - products can comply while containing detectable amounts Products already manufactured and in homes - the Convention addresses new production, not existing inventory Non-PFAS chemicals in cookware coatings such as silicone, ceramic binders, or pigments Food-contact safety beyond POPs - the Convention does not address thermal decomposition products or non-POP chemical migration
How to verify
Check whether a manufacturer has documentation confirming absence of Stockholm Convention-listed chemicals (PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS) in their coatings. For imported products, REACH compliance certificates indicate alignment with EU implementation of Stockholm Convention listings. Third-party lab testing from accredited facilities provides the strongest verification.
Stockholm Convention vs. EPA PFAS Action
The Convention provides a binding international framework for 186 parties but the U.S. has not ratified. EPA actions (health advisories, drinking water standards, CERCLA designations) apply domestically but are narrower in scope and subject to regulatory change.
Stockholm Convention vs. REACH
REACH is the EU's implementation mechanism that often goes further than the Convention's minimum requirements, adding concentration limits and broader restrictions on PFAS in consumer products sold in European markets.
Annex A (Elimination) vs. Annex B (Restriction)
Annex A chemicals like PFOA must be eliminated with only time-limited exemptions. Annex B chemicals like PFOS can continue for specified acceptable purposes. PFOA's Annex A listing signals the strongest international consensus on phase-out.
Stockholm Convention vs. State-Level PFAS Bans
U.S. state laws like those in California, Maine, and Minnesota can be more specific and aggressive than the Convention, targeting broader PFAS classes in cookware and food packaging rather than individual compounds.
What this means for your family
Every product scored on safety, efficacy, and usability - so you know which products to trust around stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants.
Get the Air Fryer shortlist, free
The picks that cleared safety, what to skip, and why price didn’t predict the winner.
No spam. Unsubscribe any time.
The Stockholm Convention is an international environmental treaty signed by 186 parties that bans or restricts the production and use of persistent organic pollutants - chemicals that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate in living organisms, and pose health risks. Adopted in 2001 and effective since 2004, it has listed several PFAS compounds relevant to cookware safety: PFOS (restricted 2009), PFOA (eliminated 2019), and PFHxS (eliminated 2022). The treaty is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme.
No. The U.S. signed the treaty in 2001 but has never ratified it. Ratification has stalled in the Senate for over two decades. Without ratification, the U.S. is not legally bound by the Convention's requirements. However, the global phase-out driven by the treaty still affects American consumers because manufacturers reformulate products globally rather than maintaining separate production for different markets. The EPA also has its own domestic PFAS regulatory actions that overlap with Convention goals.
Air fryers from established brands manufactured after 2015 should not contain intentionally added PFOA, thanks partly to the Convention's phase-out pressure and the EPA's voluntary PFOA Stewardship Program. However, the Convention allows trace contamination below certain thresholds, meaning detectable residual PFOA from manufacturing processes may still be present in PTFE-based coatings. 'PFOA-free' means no intentional addition, not necessarily zero detectable PFOA.
Three PFAS compounds are currently listed: PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonic acid) was added to Annex B (restriction) in 2009; PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) was added to Annex A (elimination) in 2019; and PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid) was added to Annex A with no exemptions in 2022. Additional PFAS compounds including long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (LC-PFCAs) have also been listed. Newer replacement PFAS like GenX are not yet listed but are under review.
Not yet. GenX (HFPO-DA) and other shorter-chain replacement PFAS that manufacturers adopted after the PFOA phase-out are not currently listed under the Convention. The PFHxS listing in 2022 shows the Convention is working to prevent regrettable substitution - replacing banned chemicals with similar ones - but the scientific review process takes 4 to 6 years per chemical. In the meantime, EPA and individual countries are pursuing their own regulatory actions on replacement PFAS.
Even though the U.S. has not ratified the treaty, the Convention's global effect on supply chains means PFOA and PFOS have been largely phased out of new cookware production worldwide. Manufacturers reformulate once for global markets rather than maintaining separate formulations. U.S. consumers benefit indirectly from this global shift. Domestically, EPA actions, state-level PFAS bans, and voluntary industry commitments provide additional regulatory pressure that aligns with Convention goals.
If your nonstick cookware was manufactured before 2015, it may contain PFOA as a processing aid residue in the coating - a chemical now listed for elimination under the Convention. Whether to replace it depends on the cookware's condition. Intact PTFE coatings at normal cooking temperatures do not release significant amounts of PFOA. Damaged, peeling, or heavily scratched coatings are a different story. If your older nonstick pans show visible wear, replacing them with newer PFOA-free options is a reasonable precaution.
Products manufactured after 2015: Major manufacturers had largely eliminated intentional PFOA use in nonstick coatings by 2015, following the EPA PFOA Stewardship Program (a voluntary industry commitment) and anticipating the Stockholm Convention listing. New air fryers and nonstick cookware from established brands should not contain intentionally added PFOA.
The contamination question: "Intentionally added" is an important qualifier. PFOA and PFOS can still be present as trace contaminants in PTFE-based coatings - residual amounts from the manufacturing process or from precursor chemicals that degrade into PFOA or PFOS. The Stockholm Convention's listing includes provisions for unintentional trace contaminants, generally allowing concentrations below specified thresholds. For consumers, this means a product can be "PFOA-free" (no intentional addition) while still containing detectable trace levels.
Replacement chemicals: The phase-out of PFOA led manufacturers to adopt replacement processing aids - most notably GenX chemicals (HFPO-DA). These replacement compounds are shorter-chain PFAS that are not currently listed under the Stockholm Convention, though they are under increasing regulatory scrutiny. The EPA PFAS regulations framework is evolving to address these newer compounds. The PFHxS listing in 2022 shows the Convention is actively working to prevent regrettable substitution.
Legacy products: Products manufactured before the phase-out - particularly older nonstick cookware, stain-resistant textiles, and water-resistant treatments - may contain PFOA or PFOS at levels that would not be permitted under current standards. The Stockholm Convention does not require parties to recall existing products, only to cease new production and use.
One reason the Stockholm Convention carries weight is the rigor of its listing process. A chemical does not get added through political negotiation alone - it goes through a structured scientific review.
The process begins when a party nominates a chemical by submitting a proposal with supporting data on persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range transport, and adverse effects. The POPs Review Committee (POPRC) - a panel of 31 government-designated experts - evaluates the proposal through three stages: screening (does the chemical meet the POP criteria?), risk profile (what are the documented hazards and exposures?), and risk management evaluation (what are the socioeconomic implications of listing?).
Only after POPRC recommends listing does the full Conference of the Parties vote. This process typically takes 4-6 years from nomination to listing, ensuring decisions are grounded in peer-reviewed evidence rather than precautionary impulse alone.
For parents, this means that when a chemical appears on the Stockholm Convention's annexes, the evidentiary bar has been high. The PFOA and PFOS listings reflect decades of accumulated scientific evidence on environmental persistence, human bioaccumulation, and health effects.
The Stockholm Convention does not operate in isolation. Its listings interact with and reinforce other regulatory frameworks that affect consumer products:
This layered regulatory landscape means cookware manufacturers face restrictions from multiple directions simultaneously. The Stockholm Convention provides the broadest international framework, while regional and national regulations fill gaps and add specificity.
The Stockholm Convention is the reason the worst legacy PFAS chemicals are disappearing from new products globally. When you see an air fryer or cookware set marketed as "PFOA-free," the Convention's listing process is part of why that claim exists - manufacturers reformulated because the global regulatory direction became unmistakable.
But the Convention also highlights what is still unresolved. Replacement PFAS chemicals are not yet listed. Trace contamination thresholds allow some residual presence. The U.S. has not ratified the treaty, meaning domestic enforcement depends on separate EPA and state-level actions rather than treaty obligation. And the Convention cannot address products already in homes - only new production.
For families evaluating kitchen products, the practical guidance is this: check that nonstick cookware is explicitly marketed as free of both PFOA and PFOS, look for third-party testing verification rather than relying solely on manufacturer claims, and understand that "PFOA-free" does not mean "PFAS-free" - the broader family of PFAS chemicals extends well beyond the compounds currently listed under the Stockholm Convention.